Common Ground in Rhetoric - Definition and Examples

In rhetoric and communication, common ground is a basis of mutual interest or agreement thats found or established in the course of an argument. Finding common ground is an essential aspect of conflict resolution and a key to ending disputes peacefully. Examples and Observations Whereas ancient rhetoricians seemed confident that they shared common ground with their audiences, modern rhetorical writers must often discover common ground. . . . In our pluralistic world where we often do not share values, readers and authors work to find the common ground that allows them to communicate and interpret judgments, evaluations, and emotions.(Wendy Olmsted, Rhetoric: An Historical Introduction. Blackwell, 2006)Buried deep within the heart of every conflict lies a territory known as Common Ground. But how do we summon the courage to seek out its borders?(The Control Voice in Tribunal. The Outer Limits, 1999)Only in a situation of actual revolution . . . could one say that there is no common ground among participants in a controversy.(David Zarefsky, A Skeptical View of Movement Studies. Central States Speech Journal, Winter 1980)The Rhetorical SituationOne possibility for defining common ground . . . is a shift from that which is already shared, to that which is not s hared--but which could potentially become shared, or if not shared then at least understood, once we open up the paradigm to include that act of listening to each other as part of the common ground of rhetorical exchange. . . .Common ground presumes that, no matter what our individual positions, we do share a common interest in both individual and social growth, a willingness to enter into the rhetorical situation with an open mind, to consider, to hear, to ask questions, to make contributions. It is out of such commonalities that we forge new competencies, new understandings, new identities . . ..(Barbara A. Emmel, Common Ground and (Re)Defanging the Antagonistic, in Dialogue and Rhetoric, ed. by Edda Weigand. John Benjamins, 2008)Common Ground in Classical Rhetoric: Shared OpinionPerhaps the least equivocal vision of  common ground is  found in  rhetorical  theories—which stress stylistic appropriateness and audience-adaptation. In antiquity, rhetorics were often ha ndbooks of commonplaces—common topics appropriate for general audiences. The idea was that it takes agreement to get agreement. Aristotle thus saw common ground as shared opinion, the underlying unity that makes enthymemes possible. Enthymemes are rhetorical syllogisms trading on the listeners ability to supply premises to a speakers claims. The common ground between speaker and listener is a cognitive unity: The said calls up the unsaid, and together the speaker and listener create a common syllogism.(Charles Arthur Willard,  Liberalism and the Problem of Knowledge: A New Rhetoric for Modern Democracy. The University of Chicago Press, 1996)The New Rhetoric of Chaim PerelmanIt sometimes seems as if two opposing views are so different that no common ground can be found. Strangely enough, exactly when two groups hold radically opposing views, common ground is likely to exist. When two political parties strongly advocate different economic policies, we may assume that both par ties are deeply concerned about the economic welfare of the country. When the prosecution and the defense in a legal case differ fundamentally on the matter of guilt or innocence, one can start by saying that both wish to see justice done. Of course, fanatics and skeptics will seldom be persuaded of anything.(Douglas Lawrie, Speaking to Good Effect: An introduction to the Theory and Practice of Rhetoric. SUN PReSS, 2005)Kenneth Burkes Concept of IdentificationWhen rhetoric and composition scholarship invokes identification, it most commonly cites Kenneth Burkes modern theory of consubstantial common ground. As a place for rhetorical listening, however, Burkes concept of identification is limited. It does not adequately address the coercive force of common ground that often haunts cross-cultural communication, nor does it adequately address how to identify and negotiate troubled identifications; moreover, it does not address how to identify and negotiate conscious identifications fun ctioning as ethical and political choices.(Krista Ratcliffe, Rhetorical Listening: Identification, Gender, Whiteness. SIU Press, 2005)

Political Discourse And Action Report - 1469 Words

Political Discourse and Action Report The United States of America is an exceptional country, but in 2016 Americans are headed for some very troubling times. With having two very detested presidential candidates running for office from both sides of the aisle and a very divided nation, America is certainly in a state of unease. With many important issues such as gun control, climate change, healthcare, and foreign policy being some of the hottest topics in politics, people will have their opinions and some might be very polarizing from each other. Some will lean conservative while others will lean liberal. Today I will be talking about the current conditions and critical issues dealing with Immigration because this is such a very sensitive topic and many people don’t understand the way of life undocumented immigrants have to go through to work and get the best they can for themselves and their families. Now, Immigration isn’t one of those issues that can be solved just by enforcing stricter immigrating laws and by deporting all undocumented immigrants here in the United States. There are many factors that play a role in determining what we should do as a country regarding the issue of Immigration. On the conservative side, we can turn to the vision of the Republican presidential candidate Donald Trump. Trump has a very solid stance on Immigration. According to his website Trump wants to â€Å"Begin working on an impenetrable physical wall on the southern border, on day one†,Show MoreRelatedAnti Muslim And Anti Islam Sentiments And Associated Everything Muslim Related With Negative Stereotypes1389 Words   |  6 Pagesdistinct term after the 1997 publication of the report â€Å"Islamophobia: A Challenge for Us All† by the British Runnymede Trust (1997). Since then, the term Islamophobia has been widely used in a variety of context yet there is still no universal definition of the term, which allows the press, including the British newspapers, to find loopholes within discourse that would allow them to put forward radical statements. Although the 1997 Runnymede Trust report has its limitations due to the diverse and sometimesRead MoreThe Russian Ukrainian Conflict During Media Discourse1510 Words   |  7 Pagescreated and shaped by community. In war or conflict discourse the power of media is crucial because it affects the image of the country on the international stage as well as public mood and atmosphere in the country. The ongoing Russian-Ukrainian conflict has been a matter of debate between many countries including but not limited to Russia and Ukraine. The research area of the current study is the current Russian-Ukrainian conflict in media discourse. The present study seeks to determine whether thisRead MoreThe Media Discourse Of News Reports Produced By The Guardian And Al Jazeera1416 Words   |  6 Pagescase-study, therefore, will research the media discourse of news reports produced by the Guardian and Al-Jazeera, choosing 5 pairs of news stories with similar topics among Syria war. The 5 cases cover latest important topics related to the war of Syria, providing more aspects of the power dynamics in the region. Besides, the cases roughly range from mid-2015 to early 2016, and the publication time of the 2 news contained in a case was near. Using discourse analysis, the texts of the selected news storiesRead MoreEssay about Research Methodology Report1448 Words   |  6 PagesResearch Methodology Report My themed research project will centre its focus upon the link between Riot Grrrl and its relation to Third-Wave Feminism. Primarily I aim to analyse Riot Grrrl’s music scene, but also its subculture mentioning its DIY punk ethic, political activism and most importantly its influential Zine network. However the purpose of this report is to demonstrate a grounded understanding in three research methodologies and how I will apply each one in regards to my own projectRead MoreSocial Media Has Changed The Landscape Of The Media Environment984 Words   |  4 PagesReddit, Pinterest, etc. Social media has led to new behaviors in obtaining news, and this trend seems to be growing rapidly amongst the younger generations. In a 2014 study The American Press institute commissioned a survey and found 4 in 10 adults report getting their news in the previous week through social media. Of that study 7 in 10 adults under the age 30 say they obtained news through social media in the last wee k, and 6 in 10 aged 30-39. Younger generations tend to embrace new technology moreRead MoreCompare and Contrast Goffmans and Foucaults Explanation of How Social Order Is Made and Remade1727 Words   |  7 Pagesconstitutes social order being made and remade through individuals, and how Mondermans’ Thesis relates to how Goffman views social order. * Foucaults’ views on what constitutes social order being made and remade through institutions and how Buchanans’ report relates to how Foucault views social order. * The differences and similarities with Goffman and Foucaults findings. Summary * Summarise what both theorists have said regarding social order and what I understand about these findings. There areRead MoreCompare and Contrast Goffman’s and Foucault’s Explanations of How Social Order Is Made and Remade1615 Words   |  7 Pagessocial situation in which connections are maintained without change or if change occurs it is in a predictable way. (Taylor, 2009, p. 173) These differing views can be related to the governance of traffic presented in the case studies of the Buchanan report and Monderman’s thesis. This is a useful and relevant example which can be applied to the general theories which need covering first of all. To start with an overview of Goffman’s theory. Goffman studied what he termed interactional order, thatRead MoreCritical Examination of the Idle No More Movement1806 Words   |  7 Pageswas organized to raise awareness regarding this bill. The movement was to be known as the Idle No More movement. This paper will critically examine and analyze the Idle No More movement and Bill C-45 from three distinct known theoretical political discourses – Neoliberal Capitalism, Decolonizing Eco-Anarchism and Social Liberal Feminism – and from perspective that I hold, an Eco-Radical Feminist. When analyzing this movement from a neoliberal capitalistic paradigm, the movement is to be opposedRead MorePost Invasion Of Iraq And The Elements Of Disaster1340 Words   |  6 Pagesaffected internal cultural relativity among ethnic, political and cultural lines, and as a result of the American intervention has it been beneficial or costly for the security, economic and political landscape in Iraq? In this literature review I will add scholarly discussion to consolidate evidence to answer the aforementioned research question and utilize reconstruction as a methodological component to measure if it has ushered in securitization, political inclusion or economic empowerment. I will alsoRead MoreSocial Media And Its Impact On Society953 Words   |  4 Pagesaccessibility of cellphones, our pockets now contain dozens of social media platforms on which we can communicate with virtually anyone. What differs social media from other methods of communication is the ease and instantaneous a ssociated with these actions. Social media has become an important institution to our contemporary society, for the reasons that will be discussed below. One way in which social media can be examined is through phenomenology. This instant communication only developed recently

Health Care System in Australian Samples †MyAssignmenthelp.com

Question: Discuss about the Health Care System in Australian. Answer: Introduction The health system in Australia is a complicated mix of federal and state government responsibilities and funding, thus making it complex for the patients to navigate. In spite of being complex the universal health system of Australia achieves efficiently good results. The expenditure made by the government in the Australian health care system is about 88% of the total GDP. The life expectancy at work in Australia is the sixth highest in the world which is 82.2 years. However there are various challenges which are faced by the health system. According to Grol et al., (2017) although the quality of care which is provided by the Australian heath care system is high, the spending of the country is reportedly unsustainable. An universal access to a various services which are funded largely through public taxation. The aim of this paper is to identify and discuss the features of the Australian health care policy. The paper also considers contemporary health care policy challenges in Australia with respect to health outcome inequities, enabling technical, allocative and quality efficiency and the roles of health professionals. The paper selects one key policy challenge faced by the Australian health system in Australia for the purpose of discussion. The paper concluded with a few recommendations to enhance the health care policies and better handle the challenges in Australia. The features of health policy in Australia The health care system in Australia is complex in nature. It can be described as a web of organization structure, care provider, recipients and services. As an inclusive and multi-faceted approach is needed to address the needs of the many and varied Australian residents, and when varied factors shape those needs age, health history, gender, location cultural background, socioeconomic and behavior, it is impossible to avoid complexity. The health care system is supported by an array of support and governance mechanisms that ensures legislation, coordination, policy, funding and regulations for providing quality services. Through the introduction of potent policies Australia has been able to achieve one of the lowest smoking rates around the world whereas by contrast it has the second highest population of obese people in the world. The public hospitals in Australia are managed by the state and territories only whereas they are funded by the commonwealth, states and territories. The p rivate health insurance is regulated by the federal government and the states provide license to the private hospitals. Various challenges are presented through this complex nature to the people who are suffering from chronic diseases as they more than often require access in a coordinated manner to services across community, acute and primary care sector. The initial contact with the health system of Australia which the residents have is when they visit a general physician. It is the general practitioner which refers these people to diagnostic testing, public hospitals or other options of treatment. However clinic care and patients are merely two components of a wide a complex which includes multiple provides who work in various settings and are supported by many regulatory, legislative and funding arrangements. According to the world health organization health policies are all those rules and regulations in place to ensure a proper protection and enhancement of public health. Its main purpose is to provide good quality service to people whenever they need them. In Australia the health care policies can be described as a multi faceted web of private and public providers, supporting mechanics, participants and settings. Nurses, medical practitioners, hospitals, allied and other health care professionals, clinics and other private and p ublic agencies consists of health providers in Australia. Public health services- responsibility and funding The coordination of the health policies in Australia is largely in the hand of Australian health minister which include the state and territory and the commonwealth ministers. The supplementary coordinative role is imposed upon the Standing council for health which collectively comprises of the health ministers. The council includes the Commonwealth Minister for Veterans' Affairs and the New Zealand Health Minister (AHMAC 2013) and The Standing Council comes under the auspices of the Council of Australian Governments (COAG), the highest intergovernmental forum in Australia (AHMAC 2013). It is ensured by the standing council that national health reforms are implemented to the best possible health care services is provided to the residents. The expenditure which the country makes in relation to health care polices is significant. The health care policies in Australia although are complex but they are being managed appropriately to ensure the best possible results for the sectors. The nurses and doctors are guided by several legislations along with a code of conduct and codes of ethics. Some of the legislations which are governed by the minister of health are Aged Care Legislation Amendment (Increasing Consumer Choice) Act 2016, Australian National Preventive Health Agency Act 2010, Biosecurity Act 2015, particularly in relation to human health, Cancer Australia Act 2006, Health Insurance Amendment (Professional Services Review) Act 2012, My Health Records Act 2012 and Medical Indemnity Act 2002. One of the most prominent features of health care policies in Australia is Medicare. It is a government funded insurance which allows the residents to avail healthcare services at a very low cost. Although hospitals are reluctant to accept Medicare as a source of funding it is compulsory to be adopted in government hospitals and various private hospitals have also adopted it. A number of health insurance organizations also provide health insurance. Medicare is the largest health insurance with a market share of 30%. In order to take out private hospital insurance the Australian government has taken few initiatives such as life time health cover, Medicare levy surcharge and private health insurance rebates. There are various non-government organizations also which play a role in the Australian healthcare system. Health policy development, implementation and evaluation processes The major principles which are used in Australia for the development of health have been designed to ensure that the best possible outcomes are obtained. Thus the development guidelines are focused on outcomes, these are based on quality of life attributes and survival rates. For this purpose the guidelines have to be based on the best possible evidence. The strongest possible methods has to be used for synthesize of evidence. Australia uses flexible and adaptable guidelines with respect to local conditions. However according to Britt et al., (2013) the guidelines in Australia for the development of polices are not made taking into account the limitation of resources. The guidelines in Australia ensure that they take into account that they have been developed to target the maximum number of audience. The dissemination and implementation of the guidelines along with its development are regularly revised and evaluated. In Australia the implementations of the guidelines is done through the identification of limitations to implementation and acceptance of the guidelines along with working in coordination with members of target groups to overcome the limitations. The polices are made in a format which is suitable for the audience they have been targeted for. The cost of the health care is kept limited so that it does not become a barrier to access. The functioning of the health care system cannot merely be enhanced through proper implementation. Proper evaluation of policies from time to time is also required to ensure that the policies are effective for their purpose. polices are revised from time to time so that it can be ensured that they are up-to-date with the current environment of health care and meet the present need of the residents (Zwar et al., 2017). Contemporary policy challenges for the Australian health care system There have been various media reports recently in relation to the so called crisis with respect to the Australian health system, a few academic commentators have thrown light upon areas of Australian health care system which needs improvement. One of these commentators has been George Palmer, who has identified areas of health care police needing improvement. The performance of the Australian health care system with respect to criteria of acceptability, efficiency, equality along with the contemporary problems related to such areas (Mills, 2014). One of the major issues in Australia related to the health care system is the quest for equity. The two major elements of equity have been the equity of outcomes and equity of access. One of the most significant development of polices related to health care equity has been the proposal to introduce a universal health insurance. The proposal leads to the development of Medibank in the year 1975. Equity is also affected by financial barriers. Another issue which acts as a barrier to equity is waiting time for gaining access to private surgeons and public hospitals are very time consuming (Weaver et al., 2013). The major issue which is to be discussed through this paper is contemporary challenges related to efficiency. Efficiency is one of the most important criteria for the assessment of a health care system. Two main elements of efficiency which require focus are dynamic efficiency and allocative efficiency (Islam et al., 2015). Allocative efficiency is related to ensuring the optimum resource allocation in relation to the health care system. The concern of such efficiency is to ensure that the input made to the health care policies provide the best possible outcome. However the funding which is made by the government in relation to the health care system is too much as compared to the outcomes which the system has been able to achieve. Technical efficiency has undergone several improvements with respect to the health care sector in the last twenty years. According to (Duckett, Breadon Farmer, 2014) the complicated interlay which is associated with state and common relations in the health sectors lead to inefficiency. However according to Drummond et al., (2015) there is major doubt that multiple reporting requirements significantly hampers efficiency. Moreover the system is very helpful towards cost shifting and addressing problems related to budgets through the transfer of programs to readily accessible c ommonwealth programs like medicare benefit schemes and pharmacy benefits schemes (Burgess Radnor 2013). The process allows that the attention of the managers towards directly enhancing efficiency is diverted which possibly results in loss of system efficiency. In addition a real problem with respect to state-commonwealth relation exits in terms of accountability and political process. The issue related to responsibility in the health sector denotes that whenever there is a problem in the system there is a game of shifting the blame on other level of politicians. This issue creates problems related to accountability of the management systems. Another key element related to efficiency is effectiveness. Effectiveness strives to ensure that one of the elements to this is efficacy to the degree to which the outputs of the system led to most effective outcomes. The primary objectives of policy are to ensure that the actual effectiveness is closest to the best possible outcomes. Priority settings are also a key issue related to allocative efficiency. Dynamic efficiency refers to the degree to which the healthcare system overall has the capacity of adopting to changes. The health care policy in Australian reflects dynamic efficiency at a clinical level by being relatively open in adapting changes (Happell et al. 2015). Conclusion There has been various media speculations related to the shortcomings of the Australian health care system. However many studies depict that the scenario is not as bad as it is shown to the public. The Australian health care system is one of the best health care systems in the world. However it cannot be said that the system is free from defects. The system is subjected to many limitations because of its complex nature. One of the most prominent issues in relation to the system is the lack of allocative efficiency. The funds which are allocated towards the healthcare system are not providing the proportionate expected outcomes. the reason for this may be various insignificant issues in the system which are too small to be focused on but add up to effect the efficiency of the system. The issue can be addressed through increasing the accountability of the ministers and preventing them from sifting the blame of other levels of ministers in case of defaults. References Britt, H., Miller, G. C., Henderson, J., Bayram, C., Valenti, L., Harrison, C., ... O'Halloran, J. (2013).General Practice Activity in Australia 2012-13: BEACH: Bettering the Evaluation and Care of Health(No. 33). Sydney University Press. Burgess, N. and Radnor, Z., 2013. Evaluating Lean in healthcare.International journal of health care quality assurance,26(3), pp.220-235. Drummond, M. F., Sculpher, M. J., Claxton, K., Stoddart, G. L., Torrance, G. W. (2015).Methods for the economic evaluation of health care programmes. Oxford university press. Duckett, S., Breadon, P., Farmer, J. (2014). Out-of-Pocket Costs: Hitting the Most Vulnerable HardestGrattan Institute Submission to the Senate Standing Committee on Community Affairs Inquiry into the Out-of-Pocket Costs in Australian Healthcare.Carlton, Vic., Grattan Institute. Grol, R., Wensing, M., Eccles, M., Davis, D. (Eds.). (2013).Improving patient care: the implementation of change in health care. John Wiley Sons. Happell, B., Platania-Phung, C., Webster, S., McKenna, B., Millar, F., Stanton, R., ... Scott, D. (2015). Applying the World Health Organization Mental Health Action Plan to evaluate policy on addressing co-occurrence of physical and mental illnesses in Australia.Australian Health Review,39(4), 370-378. Islam, S. R., Kwak, D., Kabir, M. H., Hossain, M., Kwak, K. S. (2015). The internet of things for health care: a comprehensive survey.IEEE Access,3, 678-708. Mills, A. (2014). Health care systems in low-and middle-income countries.New England Journal of Medicine,370(6), 552-557 Mossialos, E., Wenzl, M., Osborn, R., Anderson, C. (2015). International profiles of health care systems.The Commonwealth Fund,2016. Powell Davies, G., Harris, M., Perkins, D., Roland, M., Williams, A., Larsen, K., McDonald, J. (2017). Coordination of care within primary health care and with other sectors: a systematic review. Weaver, C. A., Ball, M. J., Kim, G. R., Kiel, J. M. (2016). Healthcare information management systems.Cham: Springer International Publishing. Zwar, N., Dennis, S., Griffiths, R., Perkins, D., May, J., Hasan, I., ... Caplan, G. (2017). Optimising skill-mix in the primary health care workforce for the care of older Australians: A systematic review.

Sound Waves Essay Example For Students

Sound Waves Essay Sound is part of our everyday lives. Just like we have eyes for, we are given ears for hearing sound. We rarely take the time to think about the characteristics of sound and the ways that they are made. The basis for an understanding of sound and hearing is the physics of waves. Sound is a wave, which is created by vibrating objects and spread through a medium from one location to another. In this paper, we will look at the nature, properties and behaviors of sound waves. A wave can be described as a disturbance that travels through a medium, transporting energy from one location to another location. The medium is simply the material through which the sound, or disturbance, is moving; it can be thought of as a series of interacting particles. The example of a slinky wave is often used to illustrate the nature of a wave. A disturbance is typically created within the slinky by the back and forth movement of the first coil of the slinky. The first coil becomes disturbed and begins to push or pull on the second coil; this push or pull on the second coil will shift the second coil from its balanced position. As the second coil becomes shifted, it begins to push or pull on the third coil; the push or pull on the third coil displaces it from its balanced position. As the third coil becomes shifted, it begins to push or pull on the fourth coil. This process continues one after the other, each individual particle acting to displace the neighboring particle; ev entually the disturbance travels all the way through the slinky. As the disturbance moves from coil to coil, the energy which was originally introduced into the first coil is transported along the medium from one location to another. A sound wave is similar to a slinky for a couple of reasons. First, there is a medium, which carries the disturbance from one location to another. Usually, this medium is air; though it could be any material such as water or steel. The medium is simply a series of interconnected and interacting particles. Second, there is an original source of the wave, some vibrating object capable of disturbing the first particle of the medium. The vibrating object, which creates the disturbance, could be the vocal chords of a person, the vibrating string and sound board of a guitar or violin, the vibrating tines of a tuning fork, or the vibrating diaphragm of a radio speaker. Third, the sound wave is transported from one location to another by means of the particle interaction. If the sound wave is moving through air, then as one air particle is shifted from its balanced position, it exerts a push or pull on its nearest neighbors, causing them to be shifted from their equilibrium position. This pa rticle interaction continues throughout the entire medium, with each particle interacting and causing a disturbance of its nearest neighbors. Since a sound wave is a disturbance, which is transported through a medium via the means of particle interaction, a sound wave is characterized as a mechanical wave. The creation of sound waves are often demonstrated by using a tuning fork. A tuning fork is a metal object that has two tines(spikes) that vibrate if they are hit by a rubber hammer or mallet. As the tines of the tuning forks vibrate back and forth, they begin to disturb surrounding air molecules. These disturbances are passed on to neighboring air molecules by the means of particle interaction. The motion of the disturbance, originating at the tines of the tuning fork and traveling through the medium (in this case, air) is what is referred to as a sound wave. Sometimes, the tuning fork is mounted on a soundboard. When this happens, the vibrating tuning fork, connected to the soundboard, sets the soundboard into a vibrating motion. In turn, the soundboard sets the air inside of the it into a vibrating motion. As the tines of the tuning fork, the structure of the soundboard, and the inside of the soundboard begin vibrating at the same frequency, a louder sound is produced. In fact, th e more particles which can be made to vibrate, the louder or more amplified the sound. This concept is also demonstrated by the placing the vibrating tuning fork against the glass panel of a window; the vibrating tuning fork sets the glass panel into a vibrating motion and results in an amplified sound. .u3d3395efe8e11ed54f5a6aaf23211be5 , .u3d3395efe8e11ed54f5a6aaf23211be5 .postImageUrl , .u3d3395efe8e11ed54f5a6aaf23211be5 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u3d3395efe8e11ed54f5a6aaf23211be5 , .u3d3395efe8e11ed54f5a6aaf23211be5:hover , .u3d3395efe8e11ed54f5a6aaf23211be5:visited , .u3d3395efe8e11ed54f5a6aaf23211be5:active { border:0!important; } .u3d3395efe8e11ed54f5a6aaf23211be5 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u3d3395efe8e11ed54f5a6aaf23211be5 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u3d3395efe8e11ed54f5a6aaf23211be5:active , .u3d3395efe8e11ed54f5a6aaf23211be5:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u3d3395efe8e11ed54f5a6aaf23211be5 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u3d3395efe8e11ed54f5a6aaf23211be5 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u3d3395efe8e11ed54f5a6aaf23211be5 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u3d3395efe8e11ed54f5a6aaf23211be5 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u3d3395efe8e11ed54f5a6aaf23211be5:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u3d3395efe8e11ed54f5a6aaf23211be5 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u3d3395efe8e11ed54f5a6aaf23211be5 .u3d3395efe8e11ed54f5a6aaf23211be5-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u3d3395efe8e11ed54f5a6aaf23211be5:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: The Blanton Museum - Santo, San Antonio de Padau EssayThere are two different categories of waves: mechanical waves and electromagnetic waves. Electromagnetic waves are waves that have an electric and magnetic nature and that are capable of traveling through a vacuum. Electromagnetic waves do not require a medium in order to transport their energy. Mechanical waves are waves that require a medium in order to transport their energy from one location to another. Because mechanical waves rely on particle interaction in order to transport their energy, they cannot travel through regions of space which have no particles, so sound waves cannot travel through a vacuum. Sound is c reated by a vibrating object. The vibrations of the object set particles in the surrounding medium in a vibrating motion, transporting energy through the medium. The vibrations of the particles are best described as longitudinal. Longitudinal waves are waves that the motion of the individual particles of the medium are in a direction which is parallel to the direction of energy transport. A longitudinal wave can be created in a slinky if the slinky is stretched out in a horizontal direction and the first coils of the slinky are vibrated horizontally. When this happens, each individual coil of the medium is set into a vibrating motion in directions parallel to the direction which the energy is transported. So sound waves are longitudinal. A vibrating string can create longitudinal waves. As the vibrating string moves in the forward direction, it begins to push upon surrounding air molecules, moving them to the right towards their nearest neighbor. This causes the air molecules to the right of the string to be compressed into a small region of space. As the vibrating string moves in the reverse direction (leftward), it lowers the pressure of the air immediately to its right, thus causing air molecules to move back leftward. The lower pressure to the right of the string causes air molecules in that region immediately to the right of the string to expand into a large region. The back and forth vibration of the string causes air molecules in the region to continually move back and forth horizontally; the molecules move rightward as the string moves rightward and then leftward as the string moves leftward. These back and forth vibrations are passed on to bordering neighbors by particle inte raction; making other surrounding particles begin to move rightward and leftward, then sending a wave to the right. Since air molecules are moving in a direction which is parallel to the direction which the wave moves, the sound wave is referred to as a longitudinal wave. The result of such longitudinal vibrations is the creation of compressions and rarefactions within the air. Regardless of the source of the sound wave whether it is the vibrating string or the vibrating tines of a tuning fork sound is a longitudinal wave. And the essential characteristic of a longitudinal wave is that the particles of the medium move in a direction parallel to the direction of energy transport. So as you can see, sound waves are both mechanical and longitudinal. And they are constantly around us and effecting all that we do. Whether we are talking, singing or even listening to music, sound is a major part of our everyday lives and that will probably never change (unless we run out of AIR?).

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The practice of budget in two entirely different businesses and working capital in a manufacturing company The WritePass Journal

The practice of budget in two entirely different businesses and working capital in a manufacturing company Introduction The practice of budget in two entirely different businesses and working capital in a manufacturing company IntroductionTraditional Budgeting in Static BusinessRelated Introduction This paper outlines the practice of budget in two entirely different businesses and working capital in a manufacturing company. The first part of this paper describes how budget exercised in these two companies, which are one in a static condition and another in a dynamic driven. Traditional approach of budgeting and budgetary control is still commonly used by most companies in the world despite of its limitations. In current rapidly changing environment, traditional budgeting no longer the only budgeting approach to be exercised in a company. There are some alternatives such as beyond budgeting, Zero-Based Budgeting, Activity-Based Budgeting, etc. which would be explained further in this paper. The second part of this paper describes how working capital holds major role in a company and how to improve each element in it. Working capital which generally consists of trade debtors, trade creditors, cash and stock can be improved individually to achieve optimal profit for the company.  Ã‚  Ã‚   Part A â€Å"A budget is a plan, expressed in financial and/or more generally quantitative terms, which extends forward for a period into the future† ((Gowthorpe, 2003) Cited from DocShare.com). The traditional budgeting typically developed from the review of past years budget with addition of extra value of changing factors, such as growth and inflation, from assumptions by the business. It is basically a fixed annual plan and tie managers to predetermined actions. It is based on hierarchy and centralized leadership (Stewart, 2004). It has offered many contributions over the years, but it seems unsuitable for the modern business (DocShare.com, 2009). Serven (cited in Banham, 2000) argued, â€Å"The customary system of trying to accurately predict what will happen in 12 months and budgeting accordingly is an exercise in futility†. It is nonflexible to utilize the traditional budgeting in today business environment. â€Å"The business budget today generally used as a tool to formulate intelligent decisions on the management and growth of a business venture, enabling business to set priorities monitor progress toward both financial and non-financial goals.† (Hyperion, 1998) Most budget processes are inefficient and costly. It is complicated and it takes too long to be completed, by the time its finished the business environment has changed and the budget prepared no longer applied. According to Stewart (2004), there are ten reasons why budget cause problem, as it summarized in the next figure. Though traditional budgeting have such crucial weaknesses, but most companies still rely on it because its history and their un challenged position in the top division of accepted management practices (Hope Fraser, 1999). Source: www.BusinessSculptors.com Therefore many companies now seek to find alternatives of traditional budgeting, even some attempt to abandon it. However, some analysts estimate that as many as half the companies that attempt the overhaul become so exhausted they give up and go back to traditional approach (Banham, 2000). Traditional Budgeting in Dynamic Business In a business that operates in a very dynamic, rapidly changing, and innovative environment, traditional budgeting is inappropriate to exercise. Budget is a barrier for the business because the vibrant market demands flexibility, fast response, innovation, process improvement, customer focus, and shareholder value (Daum, 2001). And it is the limitation of the traditional budgeting not to be able to fulfil these demands. The dynamic driven business should keep up with the change and adaptive to recent development to achieve success. Hence Beyond Budgeting approach introduced. Daum (2001) argued that, â€Å"The Beyond Budgeting Model is designed to overcome traditional barriers and to create a flexible, adaptable organization that gives your local managers the self-confidence and freedom to think differently, make decisions rapidly, and collaborate on innovative projects with colleagues in multifunctional teams both within your company and across its borders.†Ã‚   Exercising beyond budgeting may have become the turnaround for many companies of their budgeting problems. Beyond budgeting is about a performance management system, made up of a series of interdependent and interlocking process (Verlag, 2005). The objective is to create an adaptive system to the real world that ideally develops the business plan from the environment, i.e. growth of markets, performance of competitors, etc. Then, instead of trying to meet a negotiated number in the budget, business should try to beat this performance standard (Verlag, 2005). Thus it would not make managers feel undervalued. The process of beyond budgeting is portrayed in 12 principles of Beyond Budgeting (BBRT, 2005). The first six ‘process’ principles is concerning performance management systems that allows employees to response faster to customer needs and competitive environment. The second six ‘leadership’ principles provide a decentralization framework of responsibility to employees to facilitate them adapting quickly to potential events and improves their relative performance. Beyond budgeting can be exercised successfully by applying these principles and the business can be adaptive to the rapidly changing environment. 12 principles of Beyond Budgeting Beyond Budgeting Process Principles 1. Targets   Set aspirational goals based on continuous relative improvement not fixed targets 2. Rewards   Base rewards on relative performance with hindsight not on meeting fixed targets 3. Planning Make planning an inclusive and continuous process not an annual event 4. Resources Make resources available on demand not through annual budget allocations 5. Coordination   Coordinate cross company actions dynamically not though annual plans and budgets 6. Controls   Base controls on KPIs, trends and relative indicators not variances against plan Beyond Budgeting Leadership Principles 1. Governance Base governance on clear values and boundaries not on detailed rules and budgets 2. Performance    Build a high performance culture based on relative success not on meeting targets 3. Freedom to act   Devolve decision making authority to frontline teams don’t micro-manage them 4. Accountability   Create a network of small units accountable for results not centralized hierarchies 5. Customer focus Focus everyone on improving customer outcomes not on meeting internal targets 6. Information    Promote open and shared information don’t restrict it to those who ‘need to know’ The benefits of beyond budgeting is it will examine targets, strategies, action plans, forecasts and management reports. Comparisons might also be made against competitors and past-year performance. It will concentrate on the key drivers of business performance. The purpose is to be alert and take advantage of new opportunities and respond to potential threats by using an advanced information system to make decisions early. Speed of action and good decisions are the result of beyond budgeting. (Hope Fraser, 1999) The major change required by beyond budgeting will raise some resistance to change (Verlag, 2005). Organisations will differ in scale, culture and business context. It would be challenging to demonstrate to key stakeholders that control can still be achieved without a budget (Max, 2005). Beyond budgeting may raise issues such as doubt of loosening control, giving front-line people decision-making authority, and trusting people to act in the best interest of the business that is not easy change to contemplate (Hope Fraser, 1999). However if these issues can be handled, the business may gain success in long term. For example, the companies that have successfully practised beyond budgeting and abandoned the traditional budgeting system are Volvo (one of Europes most profitable car manufacturers), IKEA (the worlds largest furniture manufacturer and retailer), etc. (Hope Fraser, 1999). Many organizations that have gone beyond budgeting found that their performance has improved once the budgeting process was abandoned in favour of more relative and adaptive means of planning, evaluating performance and control (Stewart, 2004). Although beyond budgeting is the most updated method, but not all companies can adapt to it. Thus the other alternative for the dynamic driven business is Activity-Based Budgeting (ABB). It focuses on generating a budget explicitly from activities and resources (Hansen, Otley, et all., 2003). It creates an operationally feasible budget before generating a financial budget. Advantages of ABB approach is it allows better product, process, or activity costing and decision making, and better resource allocation to support organizational priorities. It identifies capacity issues and makes adjustment earlier in the budgeting process than under traditional budgeting which does not track resource consumption patterns. It enriches managers ability to respond to contingencies and also improves performance measurement, evaluation, and decision making (Hansen, Otley, et all., 2003). ABB can be a proper alternative for the dynamic company since it will provide more accurate analysis to quickly forecast the next budget compared to the traditional budgeting. However, ABB is not without problems. According to Barret (2003), ABB can be difficult to understand about the rules relating outputs to resources and costs. Consequently business managers tend to be doubtful of the approach. Although ABB directly relates increase in the volume of an output with increases in certain activities, it does not help in linking activities with resources. Thus any application of one of these alternatives, whether it is beyond budgeting or ABB, must be considered thoroughly subject to the business current condition. Traditional Budgeting in Static Business In a business that operates in a very stable and static market place, where there is slight change in either products or demand every year, traditional budgeting still can be appropriate (Daum, 2001). Static business would not need to take a risk to change their invariable budgetary plan as it would cost higher and consume more time than usual. However if this condition continuously persisted, the business will never develop more than its current position. It could lead to boredom for the employees who seek for challenge. As it is argued by Hope Fraser (1999), â€Å"Budgets are well known for reinforcing the command and control culture, constraining freedom and autonomy, and stifling the very challenges that excite prospective managers†. As an alternative to the static business, Zero-Based Budgeting (ZBB) is introduced. ZBB refers to proposals by Pyhrr (1973); Cheek (1977) et al. to modify the traditional budgeting process in organizations in which budgeting is an incremental process in relation to the prior years actual expenditures. The proposed ZBB process requires each manager to justify the budget request approximating the organizational functions were starting from â€Å"ground zero†. It entails clarifying the goals of an organizational unit as well as identifying the functions and projects it proposes to perform in order to achieve its goals. These activities are then ranked in order of importance (Flamholtz, 1983). Basically it is a systematic logical approach to allocate limited resources where they will be best used. Benefits of ZBB are cost saving, improving services, increase self-discipline in developing budget, reduce the entitlement mentality with respect to cost increases and make budget discussions more meaningful during review sessions (LaFaive, 2003). On the contrary ZBB also can cause problems for example, may increase the time and expense of preparing budget, may be too radical a solution for the task at hand, and can make matters worse if not conducted accordingly. Moreover a substantial commitment must be made by all sectors involved to ensure that the change is followed through (LaFaive, 2003). ZBB is recommended for the static businesses in order to improve performance. It can be useful for shaking up a process that may have grown stale and counterproductive over time (LaFaive, 2003). Variance analysis is still the most common tools to calculate the mismatch between the planned budget and the actual performance. Based on the survey by Sulaiman, Ahmad Alwi (2005), the common practice among local Japanese (about 71%) and local Malaysian companies (about 64%) is to investigate variances only when the variance exceeds a certain percentage. This is a typical characteristic of traditional budgeting. However it is inadequate to be used in today modern business. Thus Ramsey (1999) introduced diagnostic variance analysis, where budget variances are analysed in terms of the activity-based components that make up the variance, and evaluated in light of overall business performance. As a result of this analysis, the underlying cause of the variance is revealed, providing the necessary business insight to support strategic decisions. In conclusion, traditional approach cannot be abandoned completely. Budgeting is still very important in the company and need serious attention in the organization in spite of its complication (France, 2006). Zero-Based Budgeting and Activity-Based Budgeting are only improvement of traditional approach. In a dynamic driven business that evolve in rapidly changing environment like today modern business ambience, beyond budgeting can be the suitable alternative with proper handling in the organization. As for the static business, ZZB can assist the breakthrough in the organization so that the business will develop more and achieve success in the future. Part B Working capital management is important for XYZ Limited as a medium sized manufacturing business. XYZ Limited has most of their assets in the form of current assets and also current liabilities for their one of main external finances (Teruel Solano, 2007). Working capital components of XYZ are cash, debtors, stocks of raw materials, work in progress and finished goods and creditors. Each of these components can be improved as it will be discussed together with its implication to others. Working capital is the amount available in liquid that invested to build the business. In general, a company with surplus working capital will be more successful since they can expand and improve their operations (WebFinance Inc., 1999). Meanwhile companies with negative working capital may find difficulties to grow the business due to lack of funds. To improve working capital, XYZ Limited can choose between the relative benefits of two basic types of strategies for working capital management; to minimize working capital investment or to adopt working capital policies designed to increase sales. However, the management of XYZ has to evaluate the trade-off between expected profitability and risk before deciding the optimal level of investment in current assets (Teruel Solano, 2007). Profitability and risk have positive relationship. When company make decision that involve high risk, the expected profitability company will also increased. So does when company make decision that involve risk reduction, potential profitability of the company decreased as well. Minimizing working capital investment would increase company’s profitability by cutting the proportion of its total assets in the form of net current assets. However, if the inventory levels are reduced sigificantly, the firm risks losing increases in sales (Wang,2002). Moreover a significant cutback for trade credit granted may trigger sales decline from customers requiring credit. On the other hand, investing heavily in working capital may also result in higher profitability. Specifically maintaining high inventory levels cut down the cost of possible disturbance in the production process and loss of business due to the scarcity of products, reduces supply costs, and protects against price fluctuations, etc. (Teruel Solano, 2007) In addition, granting trade credit promote the company’s sales in various ways. Trade credit can perform as an effective price reduction, enhance customers order to acquire goods at times of low demand, allows customers to check that the goods they receive is as agreed (quantity and quality) and to ensure that the services contracted are carried out, and helps company to intensify long-term relationships with their customers. However, these benefits have to offset the reduction in profitability due to the increase of investment in current assets. (Smith, 1987; Ng et al., 1999) Basically if the company can obtain cash to move faster around the working capital cycle as it shown in figure 1 (e.g. by collecting payment due from debtors faster) or reduce the amount of cash tied up (e.g. reduce inventory levels relative to sales), the business will generate more cash or it will need less to fund working capital. (http://tutor2u.net/business/images/working_capital_cycle.gif) As a consequence, the company could reduce the cost of bank interest or it will have additional money available to support supplementary sales growth or investment. Likewise, if the company can negotiate improved terms with suppliers e.g. get longer credit or an increased credit limit; it will effectively create extra finance to help fund future sales. (PlanWare, 2009) The first component of XYZ working capital is cash. The cash conversion cycle was a key factor in working capital management (Gitman, 1974). It is a reflection of decisions about amount to invest in the customer and inventory accounts, and quantity of credit to accept from suppliers which represents the average number of days between the date when the company must start paying its suppliers and the date when it begins to collect payments from its customers (Teruel Solano, 2007). The only way to improve this component is to shorten the cash conversion cycle which lead to better operating performance based on research by Wang (2002). The second element is debtors. The objective is to obtain payment from debtors as fast as possible improving cash flow and minimising the risk of bad debts and not being paid at all (Cartwright, 2008). All staff in the company that dealing with the debtors should clearly understand the payment terms offered and ensure that debtors comprehend it as well. A cash discount system can be considered to encourage sales invoice to be paid faster. New debtors should go through a strict credit check to avoid incapibility to fulfill the payment. However, the company should not be too agressive to pursue the debtors because it may lead to antagonized debtors and loss of customers. (Boisjoly, 2009) The third component is stock or inventory, which divided to raw materials, work-in-progress and finished goods. Managing inventory is about timing and organizing performance. Excessive stocks can place a heavy burden on the cash resources of a business. Insufficient stocks can result in lost sales, delays for customers etc. The key is to know how fast the overall stock is moving or how long each item of stock need to be kept before being sold. Obviously, average stock-holding periods will be influenced by the nature of the business. (PlanWare, 2009) Meanwhile the work-in-progress is the stocks of unfinished goods. Work-in-progress can be sold out to customers as they will use it in their own production process or kept for XYZ’s production line. Keeping stocks of unfinished goods can be a useful way to protect production if there are problems down the line with other suppliers. As for the finished goods, the company may consider to stock up the finished goods when the demand is certain, goods are produced in batches and the company completing a large order. (Boisjoly, 2009) The quantity of overall stocks the business keep will affect the cash conversion cycle, thus there are several factors the company should consider to determined the quantity to keep. There are the realibility of supply and availability of alternative sources; the production and delivery terms (whether it is in batches or singles); demand; the stability of price; and the availibility of discount if the company purchase in bulk. (Boisjoly, 2009) These are the factors the company need to consider because the longer material kept in inventory before they moved to production process, the higher cost it will charge to the company. If XYZ can shift inventory faster, then company can cut unnecessary costs and allocate the available cash to other process. (PlanWare, 2009) In order to determine the quantity to keep in the business, nowadays, many large manufacturers operate on a just-in-time (JIT) basis whereby all the components to be assembled on a particular day, arrive at the factory early that morning. (Boisjoly, 2009) This helps to minimize manufacturing costs as JIT stocks take up minor space, minimize stock-holding and virtually eliminate the risks of obsolete stock. Company are able to conserve substantial cash because JIT manufacturers hold stock for a very short time. (PlanWare, 2009) It is the most common method to be used in certain industries if the business is in fast-moving environment. This method might suitable for XYZ if the company produce products with rapid development, where the stock is expensive to buy and store, and the goods are fragile or restocking goods is fast and effortless. The last factor is creditors. The idea is to extend the time allowed for payment of expenses the business incurs (Cartwright, 2008). If company get better credit in terms of duration or amount from suppliers, then they are able to increase the cash resources. However, slow payment may signal inefficiency of the company. Therefore it is important to look after the creditors. Working capital often assumed to be well improved by squeezing the suppliers. However, this approach might impair sales and damage relations. Thus trade credit is offered as alternative to solve this issue.   However it would depend on the industries involved. Some industries may need to improve their working capital by trade credit; some may not, because there are risks of competitive pressure, price discrimination and transaction pulling. Furthermore trade credit should not be done aggressively since it might damage the supply chain. When supply chain disrupted, the share price will drop. Applying the right mi x of trade credit strategies will improve working capital of the company. (Seifert Seifert, 2008) In conclusion, working capital is playing a major role in XYZ Limited as a medium manufacturing company. It is important to improve working capital to enhance the liquidity and profitability of the company with the existence of risk. The key to improve working capital is to shorten the cash conversion cycle. Therefore fasten collection payment from debtors, proper inventory management and squeezing creditors can be effective to boost the cash flow. Nevertheless too aggressive persuasion of payment and extending the time of credit may decline sales, break the supply chain, and lead to antagonized customers. Hence improvement approach should be done in order. Figure 1 The Working Capital Cycle Taken from http://tutor2u.net/business/images/working_capital_cycle.gif Word Count: 3,212 words References    Banham, Russ. (2000). Better Budget. Journal of Accountancy. Vol. 189. No. 2. Research Library   Ã‚   Barret, Richard. (2003). How Incorporating Drivers Can Revolutionize Budgeting and Re-forecasting. The Journal of Bank Cost Management Accounting. Vol.16. No. 1.   ProQuest Central    Beyond Budgeting Round Table. (2005). The Principles of Beyond Budgeting. [Internet] Available from:   [25 Mar 2010]    Cheek, L. M. (1977). Zero-Base Budgeting Comes of Age. AMACOM: New York.    DocShare.com. (2009). The Strengths and Weaknesses of Traditional Budgeting. [Internet] Available from:   [25 Mar 2010] Flamholtz, Eric G. (1983). Accounting, Budgeting and Control Systems in Their Organizational Context: Theoritical and Empirical Perspectives. Accounting, Organizations and Society Journal. Vol. 8. No. 2/3. Great Britain. France, Adrian. (2006). An Alternative Approach to Surveying Management Accounting Practices. [Internet] Available from:   [10 Mar 2010] Hansen, Stephen C., Otley, David T., Van der Stede, Wim A. (2003). Practice Developments in Budgeting: An Overview and Research Perspective. Journal of Management Accounting Research. Vol. 15. Research Library. Hope, Jeremy Fraser, Robin. (1999). Beyond Budgeting: Building a New Management Model for The Information Age. Management Accounting Articles. Hyperion Solution Corporation. (1998). Does Budgeting Have to Be So Problematic [Internet] Available from:  Ã‚   [25 Mar 2010] LaFaive, Michael. (2003). The Pros and Cons of Zero-Base Budgeting. Testimony by Director of Fiscal Policy. Mackinac Center for Public Policy.    Nolan, Gregory J. (1999). The End of Traditional Budgeting. The Journal of Bank Cost Management Accounting. Vol. 12. No. 2. ProQuest Central. Pyhrr, P. A. (1973). Zero-Base Budgeting. John Wiley Sons: New York. Verlag, Martin M. (2005). Life Beyond Budgets? An Implementation Story – Beyond Budgeting at Unilever. [Internet] Available from:   [10 Mar 2010]    Ramsey, Timothy L. (1999). Diagnostic Variance Analysis. The Journal of Bank Cost Management Accounting. Vol. 12. No. 3. ProQuest Central.    Sulaiman, M., Ahmad, N. N., Alwi, N. M. (2005). Is Standard Costing Obsolete? Empirical Evidence from Malaysia. Managerial Auditing Journal. Vol. 25. No. 2. ProQuest Central. [Internet] Available from:   [12 Mar 2010] List of references for Part B:   Ã‚   Boisjoly, Russell P. (2009) The Cash Flow Implications of Managing Working Capital and Capital Investment. Journal of Business Economic Studies. Vol. 15. No. 1.    Cartwright, Terry. (2008). Manage Debtors and Creditors to Improve Liquidity. Icthus.Net Communication. [Internet] Available from:  Ã‚   [30 Mar 2010]    Dunn, Paul Cheatham, Leo. (1993). Fundamentals of Small Business Financial Management for Start up, Survival, Growth, and Changing Economic Circumstances. Managerial Finance. Vol.19. No. 8. ProQuest Central.    Gitman, L.J. (1974). Estimating Corporate Liquidity Requirements: A Simplified Approach. The Financial Review. Vol. 9. pp. 79-88. Ng, C.K., Smith, J.K. and Smith, R.L. (1999), Evidence on The Determinants of Credit Terms Used in Interfirm Trade. Journal of Finance. Vol. 54. pp. 1109-29. PlanWare. (2009). Business Planning Papers: Managing Working Capital. Invest-Tech Limited. Dublin. [Internet] Available from:   [28 Mar 2010] Shukla, Arun. (2009). Working Capital Management’s Role in the Turnaround Engagement. American Bankruptcy Institute Journal. Edition: June 2009. Vol. 28. No.5. Research Library. Seifert, Daniel Seifert, Ralph W. (2008). Working Capital in Times of Financial Crisis: Three Trade Credit Strategies. Perspective for Managers Journal. No. 166. [Internet] Available from:   [25 Mar 2010] Smith, J.K. (1987). Trade Credit and Informational Asymmetry. Journal of Finance. Vol. 42, pp. 863-72.    Teruel, Pedro J. G. Solano, Pedro M. (2007). Effects of Working Capital Management on SME Profitability. International Journal of Managerial Finance. Vol. 3. No. 2. Emerald Group Publishing Limited.    Wang, Y.J. (2002). Liquidity Management, Operating Performance, and Coroporate Value: Evidence from Japan and Taiwan. Journal of Multinational Financial Management. Vol. 12. WebFinance Inc. (1999). Definition of Working Capital. WebFinance Inc. [Internet] Available from:   [25 Mar 2010] WebFinance Inc. (1999). Definition of Working Capital. WebFinance Inc. [Internet] Available from:   [25 Mar 2010]    Working Capital Model. (Unknown) [Internet] Available from: http://tutor2u.net/business/images/working_capital_cycle.gif [25 Mar 2010]

Behavior in special education Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Behavior in special education - Essay Example This model gives emphasis on rewards and punishments. An educator can set their own parameters or can induce certain situations to attain specific educational objectives. Ignoring the problematic behavior is a leading cause of unpleasant behavior. The behavioral theoretical approach aims to increase desirable behavior by increasing the interest of the child in particular area of learning. When the child behaves properly, he should be rewarded. Negative behavior is discouraged by providing negative consequences. By this methodology, proper behavior is expected in such situations to avoid negative outcome. Here capability of the teacher to influence students plays an important role while dealing with various issues related to learning behavior. Student’s improvement in learning abilities is related to the teacher’s efforts, skills and knowledge to handle behavioral aspects (Alberto & Troutman, 1999). Great input from the teacher helps the child to achieve specific goal. A special child faces many challenges while studying because of their inability to handle and understand various aspects of learning. Such students can be tackled by implementing positive reinforcement procedures (PRP) like motivation. Positive learning environment nurture the students and make them competent by increasing their ability to learn. PRP emphasize on natural desirable behavior. The teacher intentionally motivates the pupils to learn using many techniques. Genuine teacher wants their students to excel. An educator cultivates interest of the student to learn by motivating them. The teacher create supportive and comfortable environment. "What kids deserve is an engaging curriculum and a caring atmosphere so they can act on their natural desire to find out about stuff" (Brandt, 1995). Active participation in the classroom activities develops understanding of the subject. Understanding motivates them to express themselves properly and also encourages them to work hard (Nelse n,